Biological Mechanisms Involved in Muscle Dysfunction in COPD: An Integrative Damage-Regeneration-Remodeling Framework.

Skeletal muscle dysfunction is a major systemic manifestation of COPD that shapes symptoms, exercise tolerance and mortality. Current evidence can be integrated within a Damage-Regeneration-Remodeling framework linking mechanics and biology to clinical phenotypes. Pulmonary hyperinflation and chest wall geometry chronically load the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles in COPD, whereas inactivity and exacerbation-related disuse underload locomotor muscles. Across muscle compartments, oxidative/nitrosative stress, activation of proteolytic pathways, mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum stress, microvascular limitations, neuromuscular junction instability, and myosteatosis degrade muscle quality. The diaphragm adapts with a fast-to-slow fiber shift, greater oxidative capacity, and sarcomere foreshortening, improving endurance, whereas limb muscles show atrophy, a glycolytic shift, reduced oxidative enzymes, extracellular matrix accrual, and fat infiltration. Translational levers that address these mechanisms include: (I) Reduce damage: bronchodilation, lung-volume reduction, oxygen, non-invasive ventilation, early mobilization, pulmonary rehabilitation, neuromuscular stimulation, and corticosteroid stewardship; (II) Enable regeneration: progressive resistance plus high-intensity/heavy-load endurance training; adequate protein and vitamin-D intake, and endocrine correction; and (III) Steer remodeling: increase physical activity (with/without coaching/telecoaching), functional assessment and CT or MRI monitoring, inspiratory-muscle training, and phenotype-guided adjuncts in selected cases. This framework clarifies why lung deflation strategies benefit inspiratory mechanics, whereas limb recovery requires behavioral and metabolic interventions layered onto systemic optimization.