Widespread antibiotic-resistant Salmonella in reptiles and amphibians at a global exotic pet trade hub: An emerging zoonotic threat.

Along with the rise in exotic pet ownership, the prevalence of reptile- and amphibian-associated Salmonellosis (RAAS) has increased globally. Given that a high proportion of associated strains were antimicrobial-resistant, transmission of Salmonella from these animals may enhance disease burden and facilitate transmission of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) to other critical pathogens. However, data on Salmonella carriage rates and associated pathogenic risks in these animals remain scarce. This study investigates the prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles of Salmonella in pet reptiles and amphibians in a major hub for the exotic pet trade. Among over 160 samples from 47 reptile and six amphibian species, 54.9% shed viable Salmonella, with comparable rates between reptiles (55.6%) and amphibians (50.0%). Alarmingly, 93.3% of positive samples contained antibiotic-resistant Salmonella, including 1.47% multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains, predominantly from the same Cranwell's horned frog. Resistance was the highest to streptomycin (58.7%), followed by colistin (6.1%), and ampicillin (5.9%), raising critical public health concerns. This study provides evidence on MDR Salmonella in pet reptiles and amphibians, highlighting the underestimated zoonotic threats and public health risks posed by these animals in the global exotic pet trade. We advocate enhanced surveillance of resistant Salmonella in imported reptiles and amphibians and urge the enforcement of stricter regulations to mitigate pathogen transmission risks.