Impact of the exposome on the development and function of pancreatic β-cells.

The development and plasticity of the endocrine pancreas responds to both the intrauterine and postnatal exposome in a constant attempt to predict and respond to alterations in nutritional availability and metabolic requirements. Both under- and over-nutrition in utero, or exposure to adverse environmental pollutants or maternal behaviors, can each lead to altered β-cell or function at birth, and a subsequent mismatch in pancreatic hormonal demands and secretory capacity postnatally. This can be further exacerbated by metabolic stress postnatally such as from obesity or pregnancy, resulting in an increased risk of gestational diabetes, type 2 diabetes, and even type 1 diabetes. This review will discuss evidence identifying the cellular pathways in early life whereby the plasticity of the endocrine pancreatic can become pathologically limited. By necessity, much of this evidence has been gained from animal models, although extrapolation to human fetal development is possible from the fetal growth trajectory and study of the newborn. Cellular limitations to plasticity include the balance between β-cell proliferation and apoptosis, the appearance of β-cell oxidative stress, impaired glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, and sensitivity to circulating cytokines and responsiveness to programmed death receptor-1. Evidence suggests that many of the cellular pathways responsible for limiting β-cell plasticity are related to paracrine interactions within the islets of Langerhans.