Applications of virus-like particles in the prevention of protozoan parasite infection.

Vaccination is widely regarded as the most effective control measure for disease prevention, as demonstrated by its success against numerous infectious diseases. However, the development of vaccines to prevent parasitic diseases in humans remains a significant challenge. Despite decades of effort, malaria continues to remain as the leading cause of death among parasitic diseases in tropical regions, while chronic infections caused by Leishmania spp. Toxoplasma gondii, and Trypanosoma spp. persist in causing severe morbidity and economic loss. As climate change increasingly facilitates the spread of arthropod vectors that transmit these diseases into temperate regions, the need for effective vaccines against parasitic infections has never been greater. Virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines targeting infections caused by the protozoan parasites T. gondii, Plasmodium spp. and Leishmania spp. have the potential to make a significant contribution to public health. In this review, we summarize recent advances in VLP-based vaccines targeting these globally important protozoan parasites and discuss key challenges impeding their development.