Autoimmune-related movement disorders.

Movement disorders (MDs) are common symptoms of autoimmune diseases. However, the clinical spectrum of MDs in autoimmune diseases remains poorly characterized, largely due to the scarcity of large-scale clinical surveys and trials. Most available data are derived from case reports and small case series. Here, we review the 123 currently reported cases of patients with autoimmune-related MDs and evaluate the demographic and clinical characteristics, pathophysiologies, and treatments. Autoimmune MDs were observed in various diseases involving autoimmune processes, including autoimmune encephalitis (AE), central nervous system infections, and systemic autoimmune diseases; even some typical autoimmune diseases of the peripheral nervous system may also cause MDs. Owing to the diversity of aetiologies and pathophysiologies of these diseases, the clinical characteristics and prognoses of these autoimmune-related MDs are highly variable. The mechanisms underlying MDs in autoimmune diseases involve abnormalities in neuronal signalling pathways, including neurotransmitter and receptor dysfunction, as well as direct antibody-mediated attacks on neuronal structures.