Imbalances in adrenal hormones and their effects on bone metabolism.

Adrenal hormones are essential for maintaining physiological homeostasis; however, imbalances in their production can significantly impact bone metabolism. This review examines how adrenal hormone dysregulation affects bone health, focusing on the following three key pathological conditions: autonomous cortisol secretion, primary aldosteronism, and pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma. Each disorder exerts distinct effects on bone metabolism, contributing to reduced bone mass, deteriorated bone quality, and increased fracture risk. Recent advances in steroid profiling and single-cell transcriptome analysis have revealed that, in adrenocortical adenomas-such as cortisol-producing and aldosterone-producing adenomas-multiple steroid hormones contribute to these effects rather than a single hormone. Additionally, age-related changes in steroid hormones, particularly the progressive decline in dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate production and alterations in cortisol circadian rhythm, may contribute to age-associated bone fragility. This review summarizes the effects of adrenal hormone imbalances on bone metabolism in both pathological conditions and aging, which may contribute to understanding adrenal-related osteoporosis.