The outcasts, the sick, and the undead: atypical burials of the late medieval to modern greater Poland.

Past burial practices can provide insights into the social status of the inhumed and inform us of how the individuals were perceived by their community. Atypical or "deviant" burials may indicate that the deceased was considered an outcast, either due to disease, different provenance, criminal activity, or religious beliefs. To explore the importance of atypical burial practices in medieval and modern Poland, an interdisciplinary study was conducted on three Polish cemeteries (Dzwonowo, Skoki, and Wągrowiec) dating to the 14th -18th centuries CE. Twelve individuals were examined using archaeological evidence, anthropological analysis, and ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis. This study aimed to determine the underlying reasons behind the atypical nature of the burials (i.e., whether the individuals were outsiders, outcasts, relatives, or victims of infectious disease) and shed light on the complex interplay between health, social status, and community perception in medieval and modern Poland. The results revealed that a non-adult male and a middle-aged female, who were holding hands in a double burial in Skoki, possibly died from the plague. Yersinia pestis DNA was recovered from the non-adult individual, making it the third confirmed case of plague in Poland. Using the nonmetric skeletal traits, archaeological assemblage, and aDNA analysis, we identified several individuals as likely "outsiders" in the community. The results of this study expand our knowledge of past societal structures and cultural responses to disease as well as provide crucial context for interpreting burial patterns elsewhere in Europe.