Anthrax, livelihood vulnerability, and food insecurity in selected game management areas in Zambia: A mixed-methods analysis at the human-wildlife-livestock interface.

The study aimed to investigate the socio-economic impacts of anthrax outbreaks on rural communities in selected Game Management Areas (GMAs) of Zambia, with a particular focus on how livelihood diversification influences exposure to zoonotic disease risk. We used a mixed-methods approach to assess how environmental, economic, and social factors interact to shape community vulnerability and resilience. The central hypothesis is that proximity to wildlife and reliance on high-risk alternative livelihoods, such as charcoal burning, fishing, and unregulated game meat consumption, heighten household exposure to anthrax, particularly in contexts of limited veterinary access and social protection. Quantitative results showed that 87.9% of households were adversely affected by drought, with 69.1% receiving no external assistance. Coping strategies included charcoal burning, fishing, and gardening, with less than 30% benefiting from social cash transfer programs. Qualitative data provided depth to these findings, illustrating how anthrax outbreaks compounded food insecurity by decimating livestock, a critical source of food and income. Participants emphasized the need for livelihood diversification, such as beekeeping, poultry farming, and small-scale businesses, to mitigate the dual challenges of climatic shocks and zoonotic diseases. Gendered dimensions of vulnerability were also evident, with women disproportionately affected by food insecurity and economic barriers. This integration of quantitative and qualitative data highlights the complex interplay of environmental, economic, and social factors influencing resilience in rural communities. The study underscores the urgent need for comprehensive interventions to address systemic vulnerabilities, promote livelihood diversification, and strengthen food security. Tailored approaches, particularly those empowering women and marginalized groups, are crucial for enhancing community resilience and reducing the impacts of zoonotic diseases like anthrax.