Advances in Thyroid Gland Regeneration: The Integrated Approach of Cell Biology and Bioengineering.

The thyroid gland is an endocrine organ responsible for production of triiodothyronine and thyroxine, essential hormones that regulate human metabolism. A wide range of conditions can impair its function, leading to potential life-threatening consequences such as myxedema coma. The standard treatment for hypothyroidism is lifelong levothyroxine supplementation, which, despite being a significant therapeutic breakthrough, has notable limitations and does not fully restore quality of life for many patients. Biomimetic thyroid gland has emerged as a promising alternative treatment strategy for patients with hypothyroidism. Most research to date has focused on generating thyroid organoids from primary thyroid cells or stem cells. However, there is growing interest in other approaches, including the use of biomaterials, bioreactors, and 3D bioprinting as potential alternatives or supplementary technologies to the organoids. While in vitro and preclinical studies have shown encouraging results, clinical application of biomimetic thyroid gland requires further studies in several key areas, including long-term functional validation, studies on large animal models, immunological compatibility and scaffold biodegradation, and absence of standardized good manufacturing practice (GMP)-compliant production protocols.