Intra- and extracranial atherosclerotic disease: casting a new light on emerging trends.

Intra- and extracranial atherosclerotic stenosis has been shown to be associated with an increased risk of secondary stroke mortality. Advances in invasive and non-invasive imaging modalities have improved analysis of hemodynamic changes and allowed better delineation of the integrity of intracranial collateralization and plague morphology in patients with artery stenosis. This review focuses on new imaging modalities and clinical applications of currently available techniques, and provides significant insight into future directions in comprehensive analysis of intra- and extracranial atherosclerotic stenosis.