Advanced multifunctional coatings in ureteral stents: Interfacial design, properties, and applications.

Ureteral stents play an essential role in the clinical practice of managing both benign and malignant urinary tract disorders. However, their use is accompanied by various complications, including tissue damage, urinary tract infection, biofilm formation, and encrustation. Although ureteral stents demonstrate remarkable efficacy in alleviating urinary tract obstruction, the multifaceted complications stemming from the demanding physiological environment of the urinary system continue to present a formidable challenge to clinical management. Therefore, the strategies to develop multifunctional stents are critical to address the complex microenvironment of long-term indwelling urinary tract. This review initially examines the challenges associated with the urinary tract interface environment and outlines strategies to overcome them. It then highlights the state-of-the-art advances in multifunctional urinary stents and discusses customized solutions that meet clinical practice depending on the duration of stent indwelling. Finally, we discuss the potential for designing smart-responsive multifunctional coating technologies, designed for precision therapy. This review provides insight into the development of advanced ureteral stents.