Glanders: Past, Present and Future of a Neglected Zoonosis as a Threat in Veterinary and Human Health.

Burkholderia mallei is the causative agent of glanders, a serious zoonotic disease of major concern for both animal and human health. This highly contagious and potentially fatal bacterium is always classified as a biothreat agent. In this review, we covered a comprehensive overview of glanders, including the biology of the pathogen, epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, control strategies and ongoing eradication programs in Eurasia. We also summarized human case reports, differential diagnosis, treatment and organism's antimicrobial properties. The section on vaccine development is among the most detailed in this article, covering various experimental approaches and vaccine types evaluated to date. Glanders mainly affects horses, donkeys, mules and carnivorous predators and can be transmitted to people by close contact with glanderous animals. Currently, no specific therapy or licensed vaccine exists for either animals or humans. It should be noted that live-attenuated vaccines represent one of the most promising approaches for future prevention. An integrated collaboration between veterinary and human health sectors is essential to control the incidence and re-emergence of glanders.