Application Strategies of Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stromal Cells in Bone-Related Diseases.

Bone-related diseases (e.g., osteoporosis, osteoarthritis and fractures) exhibit a rising global incidence, imposing significant burdens on both quality of life and healthcare systems. Conventional therapeutic approaches, including anti-resorptive drugs and surgical interventions, face limitations such as long-term medication requirements, adverse effects (e.g., bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of the jaw) and suboptimal efficacy. Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells (BMSCs) have emerged as a promising therapeutic alternative due to their accessibility, multi-lineage differentiation potential, immunomodulatory properties and homing capacity. However, challenges such as disease complexity, mechanistic heterogeneity and therapeutic inconsistency hinder their clinical translation. Recent advances in genetic engineering, preconditioning strategies, bone tissue engineering (e.g., three-dimensional [3D] scaffolding), extracellular vesicle-based therapies and epigenetic regulation (e.g., histone modification) have significantly enhanced the therapeutic effects of BMSCs. Furthermore, cutting-edge technologies like organoids and 3D bioprinting, which stem from advances in tissue engineering, offer novel avenues for clinical applications. Given these rapid developments, this review systematically summarises BMSC-based treatment strategies for bone-related diseases, discusses current challenges and outlines future directions to advance translational research.