Bone defect repair in mice by mesenchymal stem cells.

Adult bone marrow niche contains rare primitive but highly functional multipotent progenitors (e.g., mesenchymal stem cells; MSCs) capable of differentiating into specific mesenchymal tissues like bone, cartilage, muscle, fat tissues, ligament, dermis, bone marrow stroma, tendon, and other connective tissues. Upon in vivo transplantation, MSCs also secrete a wide range of growth factors, immunomodulatory cytokines, and important bioactive macromolecules including cell-derived exosomes to structure regenerative microenvironments. This protocol describes a mouse model to study bone formation/regeneration from adult mesenchymal stem cells.