Applications of fullerenes in the treatment of osteoarthritis.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a leading cause of disability among the elderly, yet no disease-modifying therapies are available. Oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and progressive chondrocyte degeneration remain key therapeutic targets. Conventional anti-inflammatory drugs, such as steroids, offer transient relief but are rapidly cleared from the joint space. Nanomedicines have emerged as a promising strategy to overcome these limitations. Among nanomaterials, fullerenes (particularly C60) exhibit potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, with intrinsic advantages over biologics such as growth factors and proteins. These advantages include prolonged activity, high stability, and efficient cell membrane penetration. For this review, we conducted a literature search using PubMed and Google Scholar, covering publications available up to October 2025, to summarize current insights into OA pathophysiology and therapeutic options. We also highlight the translational potential of fullerenes and their functionalized derivatives as nanotherapies for OA management.