Comprehensive evaluation of disinfectants on the horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes mediated by SXT integrative conjugative elements.

The global spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is primarily driven by horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) via mobile genetic elements. Disinfectants have been reported to accelerate this process, yet most studies focus on plasmid-mediated ARG dissemination, overlooking the role of integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs). Unlike plasmids, ICEs integrate into chromosomes while retaining transfer ability, making them critical for ARG persistence. Here, we established intraspecific and interspecific conjugation models to systematically evaluate the effects of various disinfectants on SXT ICE conjugative transfer. Phenolic and quaternary ammonium disinfectants showed variable effects across different models, whereas oxidants, guanidines, organic acids, and most halogen‑based disinfectants consistently promoted SXT ICE transfer. We further focused on potassium monopersulfate (PMS) and potassium ferrate (PF), which increased SXT ICE conjugation frequency by at least 1.28‑fold and 1.45‑fold, respectively, across all models. Moreover, PMS and PF enhanced the transfer of SXT ICE into environmentally relevant microbiota (derived from feces, soil, and water) by at least 1.75‑fold and 1.37‑fold, respectively, and altered the community structure of the resulting transconjugants. Mechanistic analysis revealed that PMS and PF triggered the SOS response, leading to the de-repression of SXT ICEs, while also enhancing energy metabolism and disrupting membrane homeostasis. These effects collectively promoted SXT ICE transfer. Our findings suggest that disinfectants could unintentionally accelerate AMR dissemination, underscoring the need for more cautious application strategies.