Riding with care: A review of factors that influence the welfare of the ridden horse and a case for the application of the precautionary principle in equestrian pursuits.

Equestrian sport's social license to operate has come under scrutiny due to concerns surrounding the well-being of ridden horses. Inappropriate equipment use, such as harsh bits or overtight nosebands, can negatively influence well-being by generating inescapable pressure or pain on the sensitive structures of the horse's head and limiting natural behaviours. Restrictive equipment may also be used to generate exaggerated, stressful and uncomfortable head and neck positions such as hyperflexion. Saddles must be properly fitted to both horse and rider to ensure appropriate distribution of kinematic forces across the horse's back and promote the horse's comfort. The rider's balance, body control, ability to cue the horse, decision-making capabilities and understanding of equine behaviour can also influence the horse's experience under saddle. Physical health conditions such as ulcers or unidentified lameness can cause pain, stress and mechanical damage if left untreated, which may be further exacerbated by riding. The ridden horse's well-being is a multifactorial and complex equation. However, riders must seek to understand these nuanced aspects of well-being, and act on the precautionary principle (stating that a practice should not be assumed harmless until it is proven to be so) if there is not yet enough evidence on a subject to draw firm conclusions. Such directives will safeguard the welfare of ridden horses and the social license to operate for equestrian sports.