Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: pathophysiological role of GH/IGF-I and PTH/VITAMIN D axes, treatment options and guidelines.

Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis is the most frequent form of secondary osteoporosis caused by chronic exposure to glucocorticoid excess. Pathogenesis of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis is multifactorial including direct effects of glucocorticoids on bone cells and indirect effects of glucocorticoids on several neuroendocrine and metabolic pathways. Fragility fractures occur early in glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis and anti-osteoporotic drugs along with calcium and vitamin D should be started soon after exposure to glucocorticoid excess. This paper summarizes some of the main topics discussed during the 9th Glucocorticoid-Induced Osteoporosis Meeting (Rome, April 2016) with a specific focus on the role of growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1 and parathyroid hormone/vitamin D axes in the pathogenesis of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis and the controversial aspects concerning therapeutic approach to skeletal fragility in this clinical setting.