Pooled prevalence, species diversity, and risk factors of ixodid ticks in Ethiopian domestic animals: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Ixodid ticks are a significant global threat to animal health and production. They also play a crucial role in transmitting zoonotic and veterinary pathogens that affect both animals and humans. In Ethiopia, widespread grazing practices contribute to high levels of tick infestations among domestic animals. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to gather national evidence on the prevalence, species diversity, distribution, and risk factors of ixodid ticks in Ethiopian domestic animals. To achieve this, we conducted a thorough search of peer-reviewed and grey literature across multiple electronic databases and institutional repositories published during 2004-2025. We screened and assessed studies on ixodid tick infestations in Ethiopian domestic animals based on predefined quality criteria. Out of 5310 records retrieved, 173 studies involving 91,520 animals (50,668 infested) met the criteria for inclusion. The overall national tick infestation prevalence was 55.0% (95% CI: 50.0-59.9%), with significant variations across different regions, ranging from 3.2% to 100%. There was also considerable variability among different host species, regions, and sampling subgroups (I 2 > 83.0%, P ≤ 0.013). Thirty-five ixodid tick species were reported, mainly from the genera Rhipicephalus (16 species) and Hyalomma (10 species). Cattle showed the highest species richness, accounting for 88.6% of the tick diversity recorded. The most prevalent species included Amblyomma cohaerens, Amblyomma variegatum, Rhipicephalus decoloratus, and Rhipicephalus pulchellus. Geographical location and host species significantly contributed to the variability observed in various tick species (P < 0.05). Tick infestation was mostly linked to host factors, such as poor body condition, older age, and female sex. Lower elevations, the wet season, and extensive management systems all significantly affected tick infestation (pooled odds ratio, pOR ≥ 1.34). Many zoonotic bacterial and protozoan pathogens were found in the most frequently encountered ixodid tick species, raising potential risks for humans. In conclusion, cattle and camels serve as important hosts for various ixodid tick species. The greatest risk of infestation occurred in the humid lowlands and mid-highlands of southeastern, western, and southwestern Ethiopia. These findings highlight the need for integrated, risk-based, ecoregional tick management strategies that consider the complex interactions among ticks, hosts, and environmental factors.