Systemic lupus erythematosus therapeutic strategy: From immunotherapy to gut microbiota modulation.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is characterized by a systemic dysfunction of both the innate and adaptive immune systems, leading to an attack on healthy tissues of the body. During the development of SLE, pathogenic features, such as the formation of autoantibodies against self-nuclear antigens, cause tissue damage including necrosis and fibrosis, with increased expression levels of the type Ⅰ interferon-regulated genes. Standard treatments for lupus with immunosuppressants and glucocorticoids are not effective enough but cause side effects. As an alternative, more effective immunotherapies have been developed, including monoclonal and bispecific antibodies that target B cells, T cells, co-stimulatory molecules, cytokines or their receptors, and signaling molecules. Encouraging results have been observed in clinical trials with some of these therapies. Furthermore, a chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy has emerged as the most effective, safe, and promising treatment option for SLE, as demonstrated by successful pilot studies. Additionally, some emerging evidence suggests that gut microbiota dysbiosis may significantly contribute to the severity of SLE, and the normalization of the gut microbiota through methods such as fecal microbiota transplantation presents new opportunities for effective treatment of SLE.