Vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease: a review.

Vascular calcification (VC), an independent and strong predictor of cardiovascular risk, is often found in CKD patients. The degree of VC is providing incremental prognostic value over traditional risk markers. There is interest in improving our understanding of mechanisms, establishing diagnostic methods and effective prevention and treatment modalities. The abnormal mineral metabolism of CKD is known to facilitate the progression of VC, in concert with altered activities of VC inhibitors. Possible measures to prevent VC include the control of serum calcium and phosphate as well as other factors involved in its progression, including vitamin D sterols, parathyroid hormone, fibroblast growth factor-23, klotho, and VC inhibitors. In addition, we discuss new possible therapeutic approaches to halt VC or reverse its progression. The principal aim of this review is to provide an updated overview of VC in patients with CKD, with particular focus on pathophysiology, diagnosis, prevention and treatment.