Snakebite nephrotoxicity in Asia.

Snakebites have the highest incidence in Asia and represent an important health problem. Clinical renal manifestations include proteinuria, hematuria, pigmenturia, and renal failure. Nephropathy usually is caused by bites by snakes with hemotoxic or myotoxic venoms. These snakes are Russell's viper, saw-scaled viper, hump-nosed pit viper, green pit viper, and sea-snake. Renal pathologic changes include tubular necrosis, cortical necrosis, interstitial nephritis, glomerulonephritis, and vasculitis. Hemodynamic alterations caused by vasoactive mediators and cytokines and direct nephrotoxicity account significantly for the development of nephropathy. Hemorrhage, hypotension, disseminated intravascular coagulation, intravascular hemolysis, and rhabdomyolysis enhance renal ischemia leading to renal failure. Enzymatic activities of snake venoms account for direct nephrotoxicity. Immunologic mechanism plays a minor role.