Boron-Doped Diamond Electrodes for Voltammetric Determination of Major Antibiotic Classes: Electrochemical Mechanisms, Intelligent Analytical Systems, and Critical Perspectives.

This review sort of critically assesses how boron-doped diamond electrodes (BDDEs) are becoming more important for voltammetric determination of major antibiotic groups, like fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, $\beta$-lactams and rifamycins. It points out that conventional chromatography still has limitations such as high costs, plus demanding and sometimes complicated sample preparation. Because of that, BDDEs are positioned as a faster, very sensitive option. Their wide potential windows, low background currents, excellent durability, and this noticeable anti-fouling tendency help them show better analytical results than typical electrode materials. When it comes to actually measuring trace levels, differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and square-wave voltammetry (SWV) seem to be the most effective. Also, if you use nanostructured or otherwise modified BDDE surfaces, selectivity can improve in a meaningful way. Beyond sensing, BDDE-based platforms also look promising for joint applications such as detection and environmental electrooxidative remediation. Compared with earlier studies, this work is different because it ties together electrochemical mechanisms, voltammetric performance, and intelligent technologies. In the near future, combining artificial intelligence, chemometrics, portable setups, and automated systems should enable real-time, more sustainable antibiotic monitoring across pharmaceutical, clinical, and environmental matrices.