Smallholder farmers' perceptions of the impact of climate change on the mental and physical health of their livestock in semi-arid Ghana.

Climate change is increasingly disrupting smallholder farming systems across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with significant consequences for livestock health. While physical health impacts are relatively documented, the mental health dimension of livestock welfare remains underexplored, particularly in climate-vulnerable, low-resource settings. This study examined smallholder farmers' perceptions of their livestock health in Ghana's semi-arid Upper West Region and identified farmer-driven solutions for adaptation. Guided by the One Health framework, qualitative data were collected through focus group discussions with farmers across five districts and analyzed thematically. The results revealed four key themes. First, farmers described physical health impacts including weight loss, malnutrition, disease prevalence (e.g., foot rot, respiratory illness, tick infestations), and rising mortality linked to drought, floods, and heat stress. Additionally, farmers highlighted behavioral and mental health changes, reporting distress signals such as withdrawal, aggression, and lethargy, which they interpreted as signs of exhaustion or emotional imbalance. Also, cultural interpretations shaped understanding and responses, with generational knowledge, traditional healers, and spiritual beliefs informing livestock care and decision-making. Consequently, farmers proposed adaptation strategies, ranging from immediate actions (shade provision, water storage, herbal remedies) to long-term solutions (fodder banks, reforestation, mobile veterinary outreach, and animal welfare training). The findings underscore the importance of integrating farmer knowledge and indigenous practices into livestock policy and highlight the need for a One Health approach that addresses both physical and mental well-being. By situating livestock health within cultural, ecological, and behavioral contexts, this study contributes new insights to the emerging discourse on climate-resilient livestock systems in SSA.