Cystoscopy.

Cystoscopy is a diagnostic and therapeutic procedure commonly employed in human medicine but that has received limited application in small animal practice. Readily applicable, cost-effective instruments are available for use in the dog and cat. The urethral opening, urethra, bladder, and ureteral openings can be effectively assessed, and samples can be collected for histopathology, cultures, and stone analysis. Cystoscopy is indicated for assessment of chronic cystitis, hematuria, tenesmus, increased frequency of urination, urinary incontinence, alteration of urinary stream, trauma, and cystic and urethral calculi. Most cases can be evaluated transurethrally; the rest can be assessed by prepubic percutaneous cystoscopy.