Electrochemical biosensor for breast cancer biomarker detection based on advanced carbon materials: recent progress and future prospects.

Early detection of breast cancer is crucial for improving women's health and survival rates. However, traditional diagnostic and treatment approaches are often expensive, time-intensive, complex, and may lack the sensitivity and specificity needed for effective clinical use. Detecting early-stage cancer and monitoring recurrence demand highly sensitive, reproducible detection of low-abundance biomarkers. Electrochemical biosensors offer a promising solution, enabling rapid, cost-effective diagnostics suitable for point-of-care (POC) applications. Among these, carbon-based nanomaterials, such as: carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), carbon dots (CDs), and their nanocomposites, stand out for their unique properties that support the sensitive detection of breast cancer biomarkers. This review comprehensively explores recent advancements (2020 to March 2025) in using carbon-based materials for POC electrochemical sensors in breast cancer diagnostics. It covers synthesis methods, structural characteristics, and detection mechanisms associated with key biomarkers, like: HER2, CA 15-3, CEA, CA 125, BRCA1, and MUC1, including performance metrics such as linear range, limit of detection (LOD), and sensitivity. Additionally, the potential integration of these biosensors with smartphones is discussed, along with an overview of sustainability challenges and future research directions in this field.