A Review of Artificial Intelligence in Craniofacial Surgery: Clinical Applications Beyond 3D Printing.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly reshaping craniofacial surgery, extending well beyond 3D printing. This domain has long been challenged by anatomic variability and subjective assessment, frequently relying on expert opinions and experience. Across key areas, such as cleft lip and palate, craniosynostoses, orthognathic deformities, velopharyngeal insufficiency, and auricular anomalies, AI systems are revolutionizing diagnosis and management strategies by providing automated, objective insights. These capabilities can strengthen diagnosis and risk stratification, personalize surgical planning and timing, and enable standardized postoperative outcome assessment. Beyond the operating room, educational applications span readability enhancement of patient materials and trainee assessment tools, while telemedicine models expand access to specialist-level diagnosis. Key challenges include data scarcity and bias, privacy, workflow fit, and evolving regulatory expectations. Overall, AI is converting experience-dependent and subjective processes into transparent and scalable pathways, with the potential to improve accuracy, efficiency, and equity of craniofacial care.