American journal of disaster medicine · 2026
Determination of the causes of stampedes, deaths and injuries in football stadiums.
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Kara Fulya Sağ, Yıldırım Gül Özlem
Аннотация
AIM: This study aims to identify the primary causes of crowd-induced stampedes in football stadiums and the factors underlying the associated fatalities and injuries.
METHODS: A quantitative research design using a semistructured questionnaire was employed. The study population consisted of 2,750 disaster-trained professionals actively working in disaster-related fields, with a final sample of 341 participants. Data on perceptions of stampede causes and related health outcomes were collected online via Google Forms® between September 2023 and July 2024. Digital informed consent was obtained, and safeguards were implemented to prevent duplicate responses. Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS 21.
RESULTS: Participants identified several key causes of stampedes in football stadiums, including ticket overselling, inadequate physical -infrastructureeg, insufficient emergency exits and locked gatesfanatic and hooligan behaviors, lack of public awareness and training, excessive crowd density, and inappropriate actions by security forces, eg, tear gas use. Primary causes of fatalities and injuries were reported as trauma, eg, falls and crushing; respiratory emergencies, eg, suffocation and asphyxia; substance and alcohol use; cardiac events, eg, heart attacks; psychological distress, eg, panic and aggression; and neurological factors.
CONCLUSION: Stampede incidents in football stadiums arise from a combination of environmental, organizational, and behavioral factors. Prevention and mitigation require a comprehensive risk management strategy integrating infrastructure improvements, effective crowd control, staff training, and public education. These findings underscore the need for multidisciplinary research and evidence-based policies to enhance safety at large sporting events.
METHODS: A quantitative research design using a semistructured questionnaire was employed. The study population consisted of 2,750 disaster-trained professionals actively working in disaster-related fields, with a final sample of 341 participants. Data on perceptions of stampede causes and related health outcomes were collected online via Google Forms® between September 2023 and July 2024. Digital informed consent was obtained, and safeguards were implemented to prevent duplicate responses. Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS 21.
RESULTS: Participants identified several key causes of stampedes in football stadiums, including ticket overselling, inadequate physical -infrastructureeg, insufficient emergency exits and locked gatesfanatic and hooligan behaviors, lack of public awareness and training, excessive crowd density, and inappropriate actions by security forces, eg, tear gas use. Primary causes of fatalities and injuries were reported as trauma, eg, falls and crushing; respiratory emergencies, eg, suffocation and asphyxia; substance and alcohol use; cardiac events, eg, heart attacks; psychological distress, eg, panic and aggression; and neurological factors.
CONCLUSION: Stampede incidents in football stadiums arise from a combination of environmental, organizational, and behavioral factors. Prevention and mitigation require a comprehensive risk management strategy integrating infrastructure improvements, effective crowd control, staff training, and public education. These findings underscore the need for multidisciplinary research and evidence-based policies to enhance safety at large sporting events.