Biosensors and Biomarkers for the Detection of Motion Sickness.

Motion sickness (MS) is a prevalent syndrome that predominantly occurs during transportation and virtual reality (VR). The absence of reliable indicators and detection methods makes precise diagnosis difficult. Biomarker concentrations and trends may imply individual susceptibility, symptom classification, and the specific progression of MS. It is therefore essential to explore biosensors capable of providing sensitive, accurate, and real-time monitoring of biomarkers. This review provides a summary of the pathogenesis and biological pathways underlying MS, followed by an examination of biomarkers and their research progress. The most recent electrochemical biosensors developed for the non-invasive detection of representative biomarkers (e.g., cortisol, α-amylase, and estrogen) are comprehensively summarized. The effectiveness of these biosensors in practical application is discussed. It is anticipated that electrochemical biosensors can be gradually improved from the sampling methods, multimodal combinations, and data processing, which can facilitate the detection of MS toward individuation, refinement, and intelligence.