Photocatalytic Degradation of Antibiotics Using Nanomaterials: Mechanisms, Applications, and Future Perspectives.

Widespread antibiotic residues in aquatic environments pose escalating threats to ecological stability and human health, highlighting the urgent demand for effective remediation strategies. In recent years, photocatalytic technology based on advanced nanomaterials has emerged as a sustainable and efficient strategy for antibiotic degradation, enabling the effective utilization of solar energy for environmental remediation. This review provides an in-depth discussion of six representative categories of photocatalytic nanomaterials that have demonstrated remarkable performance in antibiotic degradation, including metal oxide-based systems with defect engineering and hollow architectures, bismuth-based semiconductors with narrow band gaps and heterojunction designs, silver-based plasmonic composites with enhanced light harvesting, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) featuring tunable porosity and hybrid interfaces, carbon-based materials such as g-C3N4 and biochar that facilitate charge transfer and adsorption, and emerging MXene-semiconductor hybrids exhibiting exceptional conductivity and interfacial activity. The photocatalytic performance of these nanomaterials is compared in terms of degradation efficiency, recyclability, and visible-light response to evaluate their suitability for antibiotic degradation. Beyond parent compound removal, we emphasize transformation products, mineralization, and post-treatment toxicity evolution as critical metrics for assessing true detoxification and environmental risk. In addition, the incorporation of artificial intelligence into photocatalyst design, mechanistic modeling, and process optimization is highlighted as a promising direction for accelerating material innovation and advancing toward scalable, safe, and sustainable photocatalytic applications.