Molecular pathways and therapeutic frontiers in cancer cachexia: Integrating inflammatory and non-inflammatory mechanisms.

BACKGROUND

Cancer cachexia is a complex syndrome marked by ongoing weight loss, muscle wasting, and metabolic changes that standard nutrition cannot reverse. Key drivers include inflammatory cytokines Interleukins-6, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Interleukins-1 (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1) and non-inflammatory factors Proteolysis-Inducing Factor, Lipid-Mobilizing Factor, Adipokines. Despite research progress, effective treatments are still scarce.

METHODS

This narrative review summarizes current understanding of the molecular and cellular mechanisms behind cancer cachexia, focusing on how cytokines, non-inflammatory factors, and metabolic mediators affect muscle and fat loss. It also discusses new therapies and future integrated management strategies.

RESULTS

Current evidence highlights the central role of Tumor necrosis factors (TNF), Interleukins (IL). etc. and non-inflammatory factors like Proteolysis Inducing Factor (PIF), Lipid-Mobilizing Factor (LMF), myostatin, activin A drive catabolic pathways such as ubiquitin-proteasome, autophagy, ferroptosis, and Forkhead box O (FOXO) signaling further accelerate proteolysis and lipid mobilization. Therapeutic strategies including cytokine inhibitors, anabolic agents, appetite stimulants, proteasome inhibitors, and novel ferroptosis blockers show promise, especially when combined with nutritional and exercise-based interventions.

CONCLUSION

Addressing both inflammatory and non-inflammatory mechanisms offers a more holistic approach to the management of cancer cachexia. Employing multimodal, individualized therapeutic strategies may enhance patient outcomes and improve quality of life.