Hiccups, Hypersalivation, Hallucinations in Parkinson's Disease: New Insights, Mechanisms, Pathophysiology, and Management.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic, progressive neurological disorder and the second most common neurodegenerative condition. We report three common but overlooked symptoms in PD-hiccups, hypersalivation, and hallucinations-in terms of their prevalence, pathophysiology, and up-to-date evidence-based treatment strategies. Whilst all these three symptoms do occur in many other neurological and non-neurological conditions, early recognition and treatment are paramount. Whilst hiccups affect 3% of healthy people, their rate of occurrence is higher (20%) in patients with PD. Hypersalivation (Sialorrhea) is another common neurological manifestation of many neurological and other neurodegenerative conditions such as motor neuron disease (MND), with a median prevalence rate of 56% (range: 32-74%). A 42% prevalence of sialorrhea is also reported in sub-optimally treated patients with PD. Hallucinations, especially visual hallucinations, are commonly reported, with a prevalence of 32-63% in PD, and a 55-78% prevalence is noted in patients with dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), followed by tactile hallucinations, which are indicated by a sensation of crawling bugs or imaginary creatures across the skin surface. Whilst mainstay and primary management strategies for all these three symptoms are carried out through history taking, it is also essential to identify and treat possible potential triggers such as infection, minimise or avoid causative (such as drug-induced) factors, and especially carry out patient education before considering more definitive treatment strategies, such as botulinum toxin therapies for hypersalivation, to improve the quality of life of patients. This original review paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the disease mechanisms, pathophysiology, and management of hiccups, hypersalivation, and hallucinations in Parkinson's disease.