A review on hemostatic materials: Past, present and future developments.

Hemostatic materials are essential to control bleeding, promoting wound healing, and reducing complications across a wide range of medical applications, including surgical procedures, trauma care, and minimally invasive interventions. But commercial hemostatic materials still possess several disadvantages. Therefore, the development of safe, effective, and user-friendly hemostatic materials remains a critical goal. Recent advances led to the development of different hemostatic agents, including inorganic materials (kaolin, silica, and zeolites), biobased polymers (polysaccharides, chitosan, alginate, cellulose, starch, and hyaluronic acid), peptides (short amino acid chains), proteins (fibrin, gelatin, and collagen), synthetic polymers (polyethylene glycol and polyvinyl alcohol), and hybrid systems combining inorganic and organic components. These materials were engineered into a range of functional forms, including nanofibers, gels (aerogels and hydrogels), sponges (foams), dressings (gauzes, films, membranes), powders (nanoparticles), and injectable solutions. This review presents the mechanisms of action, characterization methods, and global market status, as well as the material and morphological classifications of hemostatic materials, along with commercial products and research developments. Recent findings and key challenges are also reviewed, including hemostatic performance metrics (clotting time and blood loss), as well as material properties (biocompatibility, biodegradability, antibacterial activity, and toxicity). Finally, recent innovations and trends are discussed.