History and future perspectives of spinosad for mosquito control.

Since the initial discovery of the soil-dwelling actinomycete Saccharopolyspora spinosa in 1982, its metabolites spinosyns and modified spinosoids have been developed to control a wide variety of arthropod pests of economic importance. The most intensively studied are spinosad consisting of natural spinosyn A and D, as well as spinetoram comprising modified spinosyn J and L. The unique mode-of-action, high bioactivity and generally benign environmental safety profile of spinosyns add significant value to this class of pesticides of natural origin. Currently, products based on spinosad and spinetoram are available in >85 countries since initial global registration in 1996. In the US, spinosad and spinetoram are found in >80 registered pesticide products, mostly being used on agricultural crops, ornamental plants, stored grains, urban environments, and pets. Some spinosad products are approved for use in organic farming. Since the earliest recognition and registration of spinosad products for mosquito control in the 2000s, numerous customized formulations have been developed and registered for controlling different mosquito species in diverse habitats. Thus far, satisfactory bioactivities and effectiveness against mosquitoes by available products have been documented worldwide. At the same time, concerns over nontarget aquatic invertebrate fauna have gradually emerged when considering spinosad as a relatively selective pesticide. Resistance and cross-resistance following repeated applications, and their management are of pressing concern. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.