Unveiling the therapeutic potential of Calotropis procera: from traditional applications to phytochemistry, pharmacology, and safety.

Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton, a perennial shrub of the Apocynaceae family, is widely valued in Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and homeopathy for its broad therapeutic potential, attributed to a diverse phytochemical repertoire that includes alkaloids, triterpenoids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, fatty acids, glycosides, and proteases. Traditionally, it is used to treat bronchitis, asthma, leprosy, eczema, elephantiasis, joint disorders, various skin ailments, and is also employed as a laxative, anthelmintic, and antiulcer agent. Phytochemical investigations of its latex, leaves, flowers, and stem bark reveal abundant terpenoids, cardenolides, steroids, and proteolytic enzymes, which underpin its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective, and wound-healing activities; notably, the stem bark demonstrates strong anti-inflammatory and gastroprotective effects. This review compiles and evaluates literature from PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science up to November 2025, providing an integrated account of the plant's traditional uses, botanical characteristics, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and safety, while also incorporating comparative insights on the closely related species Calotropis gigantea. Given its rich bioactive profile and multifaceted pharmacological value, C. procera emerges as a promising candidate for future drug development, warranting detailed mechanistic studies, extract standardization, and evidence-based integration into modern healthcare systems.