Innovative construction and application of bile duct organoids: Unraveling the complexity of bile duct diseases and potential therapeutic strategies.

The biliary system is crucial for liver function, regulating bile production, secretion, and transport. Dysfunctions within this system can lead to various diseases, such as cholangiopathies and biliary fibrosis, which may progress from benign to malignant states like cholangiocarcinoma. While liver organoid research is well-established and technologically advanced, bile duct organoids (BDOs) offer significant potential. BDOs can accurately simulate the physiological structure and function of bile ducts, making them valuable tools for in-vitro biliary disease research. Here, we review the development of BDO models, focusing on stem cell-derived organoids and tissue-derived organoids. We also illustrate the role of cultivation strategies and extracellular scaffolds in supporting organoid growth and stability, including the influence of cellular components of the microenvironment and physicochemical factors. Furthermore, we discuss the applications of BDOs in biliary development, disease modeling, regenerative medicine, and drug screening. Additionally, we emphasize the transformative potential in BDO biobanks and personalized medicine, which helps to pave the way for innovative therapeutic strategies and personalized medicine. Finally, we summarize the current and prospective advancements in BDO technologies, highlighting the integration of emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, 3D bioprinting, and organoid-on-chip systems. These technologies hold great promise for significantly enhancing both clinical and research applications in the field of biliary diseases.