Exploring the Antimicrobial Efficacy of Graphene Oxide: Key Mechanisms and Future Directions.

The inappropriate utilization of traditional antimicrobials has expedited the development of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, thereby generating an urgent demand for innovative, safe, and efficacious alternatives. Graphene oxide (GO), characterized by its distinctive physicochemical properties, holds significant potential for a wide range of biomedical applications, such as the prevention of oral diseases, periodontal therapy, control of gastrointestinal infections, wound healing, antibacterial therapy for the respiratory tract, and management of urogenital infections. The antimicrobial mechanisms of GO include physical disruption of microbial membranes, induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and its role as a photosensitizer. Moreover, improving the dispersion, stability, release behavior, and reusability of GO-based composites can markedly enhance their effectiveness. The antimicrobial activity of GO is further modulated by its physicochemical properties, synthesis methods, bacterial characteristics, and environmental conditions, while potential synergistic or antagonistic interactions remain to be elucidated. This review synthesizes recent advancements in GO-based antimicrobial strategies, elucidates key mechanisms and influencing factors, and addresses major challenges and future research directions, with the objective of facilitating the clinical translation of GO as a next-generation antimicrobial material.