Integration of multisensory technology and untargeted metabolomics to investigate the impact of geographic regions on the volatile and non-volatile metabolites of goji berry wine.

This study integrates sensory analysis, untargeted metabolomics, and multivariate statistical methods to comprehensively characterize the flavor differences of goji berry wines from Ningxia (NXGW), Qinghai (QHGW), Gansu (GSGW), and Xinjiang (XJGW) and reveal their unique regional characteristics. Comparative analysis showed that esters and ketones were predominant in QHGW (accounting for 33.13 % and 99.05 % of these compound classes, respectively), aldehydes and acids were more abundant in XJGW (72.95 % and 100 %), and alcohols were dominant in GSGW (59.91 %). In addition, 45 geographically distinct volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were identified. It is notable that four compounds were identified as the main contributors to the aroma (ROAV >1), including isoamyl acetate, ethyl caprylate, ethyl caprate and nonanal. In terms of non-volatile metabolites, 350 differential compounds were detected and classified into 11 categories. Notably, NXGW exhibited higher levels of phenylpropanoids and polyketides, GSGW contained more lipids and lipid-like molecules, and QHGW was enriched in organic acids and derivatives. Spearman's rank correlation analysis revealed significant relationships between 45 differential VOCs and 11 classes of non-volatile metabolites (|ρ| > 0.6, P < 0.05). Furthermore, Mantel test analysis demonstrated that longitude, latitude, and altitude were key driving factors for multiple differential metabolites, particularly esters and total lipids and lipid-like molecules. Crucially, a multi-omics PCA fusion model achieved complete differentiation of the four production regions, outperforming models based on individual sensory technologies. This study establishes a metabolite-geography relationship framework and provides actionable insights for improving the quality and authenticity verification of terroir-driven functional fermented beverages.