Advancements in glucose biosensors: Innovations for wearable and real-time monitoring.

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder that requires constant glucose checking to prevent issues. Traditional finger-pricking methods are used by many individuals, but they are invasive and not suitable for continuous monitoring, making compliance challenging for patients. This review discusses novel advancements in glucose biosensors, particularly wearable, real-time, and non-invasive sensors. There are new biosensing platforms, such as enzyme electrochemical sensors, microneedles, and flexible electronics, that have enabled other biofluids, such as interstitial fluid, saliva, sweat, and tears, to be used to continually measure glucose levels (CGM). These biosensors are extremely comfortable, simple to access, and provide continuous feedback. The problems of biofouling, calibration difficulty, sensor lifespan, and interference by molecules other than the target are debated, as well as possible solutions including antifouling coating, nanozymes, and calibration built into the system. Multianalyte sensing, for example, determining glucose, insulin, lactate, ketones, cortisol, and catecholamines together, is presented as a new way of addressing diabetes in an integrated fashion. The review also discusses the standards established by the ISO, ADA, FDA, and CLSI in order to ensure that analytical performance and user safety are both satisfactory. The integration of biosensors with wireless, smartphone-based platforms is a step towards personalized healthcare. In order to make such next-generation biosensors more cost-effective, accurate, and accessible, and to enhance the clinical outcome and quality of life for diabetes patients, research and technical advancement in an interdisciplinary fashion must be pursued.