Unraveling the molecular mechanisms of triphenyl phosphate-induced hepatotoxicity: Integrated insights from network toxicology, molecular docking, and transcriptomic evidence.

Triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), a prevalent organophosphate flame retardant (OPFR), exhibits environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and biotoxicity. Although emerging evidence suggests its hepatotoxicity, the precise molecular mechanisms remain incompletely defined. This study employed an integrative strategy to study the mechanisms. Network analysis identified hepatotoxicity targets by intersecting TPhP-associated targets with liver disease targets. Subsequently, protein-protein interaction networks prioritized seven hub genes (SRC, PPARG, AKT1, EP300, EGFR, PTGS2, and GAPDH) using topological algorithms. For structural validation, molecular docking and dynamics simulations were employed to evaluate the binding stability between TPhP and these targets. Functional enrichment analyses implicated phospholipid biosynthesis and xenobiotic metabolism, with inflammatory response exacerbating metabolic dysregulation. Quantitative analysis of HepG2 cells treated with TPhP for 24 h demonstrated significant upregulation of PPARG, PTGS2, and EGFR. Microarray analysis in rodent models confirmed 71% concordance (5/7 hub genes) between network-predicted hub genes and rodent transcriptomic data. The results indicate that TPhP exerts hepatotoxicity through multi-target interactions derived from network analysis, primarily involving PPARG/PI3K/AKT1-driven metabolic dysregulation and STAT3/mTORC1-mediated inflammatory cascades associated with PTGS2. Collectively, this integrative study provides evidence that TPhP may compromise lipid raft integrity and autophagy-lysosomal function through PPARG-centered networks, offering novel insights for environmental risk assessment and therapeutic target identification.