Nanoparticle-based approaches to tackling urinary tract biofilms.

Urinary tract infections represent a substantial global clinical and economic burden, exacerbated by recurrence, indwelling medical devices, and the emergence of multidrug-resistant uropathogens. Biofilm formation contributes to treatment failure due to its resistance to antimicrobial agents, influenced by the urinary tract's unique properties. Therefore, this review examines urinary tract biofilm pathophysiology and evaluates nanoparticle-based strategies, including metallic, polymeric, lipid-based, hybrid, and stimuli-responsive nanosystems. Mechanisms of action, applications in medical device coatings, and key safety considerations are discussed. Nanotechnology enables a shift from single-mechanism therapies toward multifunctional systems that limit bacterial adhesion, disrupt established biofilms, and enhance antibiotic activity. Antimicrobial device coatings are the most advanced application, but long-term safety, controlled biodistribution, and regulatory alignment remain pivotal for broader clinical translation. This review is based on a literature search conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus, prioritizing studies employing urine-relevant models.