Advances in nanocarrier-enabled theranostic strategies for lung cancer diagnosis and management.

Lung cancer continues to be a primary cause of cancer-related death globally, attributed to late-stage detection and the inadequate sensitivity of traditional diagnostic methods. Recent advances in nanotechnology have markedly enhanced early detection, tumour imaging, and localisation using specialised nanocarriers with improved physicochemical properties. This review discusses the role of nanocarriers, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, metallic nanoparticles, quantum dots, and lipid-based nanostructures, which possess distinctive physicochemical properties that enhance target selectivity and signal intensity. These nanoplatforms can be modified with tumor-specific ligands, antibodies, or peptides to facilitate the molecular detection of lung cancer biomarkers, including EGFR, KRAS, and PD-L1. Furthermore, combinations of nanocarrier-based imaging systems with imaging modalities such as MRI, CT, PET, and fluorescence imaging provide non-invasive and real-time tumour visualisation. The review also highlights the promising potential of theranostic nanocarriers that combine diagnostic and therapeutic functions to support personalised lung cancer management. Despite considerable preclinical achievements, the transition to clinical application faces obstacles related to biocompatibility, large-scale production, and regulatory approval. Ongoing multidisciplinary research is crucial to enhance these nanocarrier-based diagnostics and theranostic systems for the early and precise detection of lung cancer, hence increasing patient prognosis and survival rates.