Clinical and environmental risk factors for childhood developmental disabilities: A narrative review (1990-2025).

Developmental disabilities (DD) affect millions of children worldwide and disproportionately burden low- and middle-income countries. Modifiable risks include early-life clinical procedures and environmental/psychosocial exposures, but syntheses spanning 1990-2025, including the coronavirus disease 2019, remain limited. To narratively review evidence on clinical and environmental risk factors for DD in children < 18 years. PubMed (1990-2025) was searched using SPIDER. Clinical trials, cohorts, and population-based studies were thematically synthesized across clinical procedural and environmental/psychosocial domains. Thirty-two studies were included (19 clinical/procedural; 13 environmental/psychosocial/early intervention), enrolling > 100000 participants; registry studies added > 1.8 million. Cardiac surgery for congenital heart disease was associated with below-average cognitive and motor scores, driven mainly by perioperative complexity, low birth weight, and prolonged intensive care rather than surgical technique. Maternal mental illness was linked to adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes (adjusted odds ratio: Approximately 3-4). Multidomain, family-centered interventions - including telehealth - improved developmental outcomes and reduced delay. Several cohorts reported increased developmental concerns during and after coronavirus disease 2019, particularly in communication and social-emotional domains. Clinical and environmental/psychosocial factors are major, potentially modifiable determinants of DD; priorities include strengthened developmental surveillance, caregiver mental health assessment, and equitable access to early intervention.