Toward clinical translation of biosensors for chronic kidney disease.

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a progressive disorder that affects one in ten individuals globally and ranks as the seventh leading cause of mortality. Its rising prevalence, driven by lifestyle factors and ultra-processed diets, underscores the need for prevention and early detection. Current assessments of kidney function are invasive, time-consuming, and centralized, thus limiting scalability and accessibility. Point-of-care and wearable biosensors offer a paradigm shift by enabling decentralized, real-time monitoring; however, their clinical translation remains challenging. This review provides a roadmap for advancing CKD biosensor research toward clinical implementation. We examine (i) key biomarkers and risk factors for early detection, (ii) their partitioning in alternative body fluids such as sweat, interstitial fluid, saliva, and tears, (iii) sensor technologies validated through animal and human proof-of-concept studies. Beyond technical aspects, we highlight strategies for navigating institutional review boards, securing ethics approval, and designing clinical trials tailored to CKD biosensors. Finally, we discuss current challenges, opportunities, and future directions, offering practical guidance for integrating these technologies into clinical workflows.