European journal of applied physiology · 2026
Nature immersion in virtual reality has limited hypoalgesia effects for muscle pain or motor performance benefits during prescribed and self-regulated tasks.
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O'Malley Callum A, Harris David J, Hughes Sam W, Cottrell Jack E, Lloyd Daniel, Vine Samuel J, Arthur Tom
Аннотация
PURPOSE: Virtual reality (VR) reduces experimental and clinical pain, but whether these effects extend to naturally occurring muscle pain (NOMP) during exercise remains unclear. This study examined whether immersive nature-based VR attenuates NOMP and improves motor performance during prescribed and self-regulated exercise.
METHODS: Two within-participant crossover studies were conducted involving 12 (Study 1) and 24 (Study 2) healthy participants. In Study 1, participants completed a stepped incremental cycling task to exhaustion. In Study 2, participants performed self-regulated intermittent isometric handgrip contractions at light (13/100) and strong (50/100) perceived effort. Tasks were completed under immersive VR (nature scene), two-dimensional sham, and no-intervention control conditions in pseudo-randomised, counterbalanced orders. Pain onset, NOMP intensity, perceived effort, and time to exhaustion were assessed in Study (1) Muscle pain intensity and force production were measured in Study (2) Repeated measures ANOVAs and assessed main condition effects.
RESULTS: Immersive VR did not delay pain onset [Formula: see text], prolong time to exhaustion [Formula: see text], or lower perceived effort compared within sham or control conditions [Formula: see text]. A small, yet practically meaningful, reduction in NOMP intensity occurred early during cycling [Formula: see text] but was not sustained at later phases of the task [Formula: see text]. In Study 2, NOMP intensity [Formula: see text] and force production measures [Formula: see text] were similar across conditions.
CONCLUSION: Nature-based immersive VR had limited effects on NOMP and motor performance. Pain types that are peripherally driven, like NOMP, may be less affected by VR interventions which target central mechanisms of pain modulation. Thus, hypoalgesia effects with VR are potentially pain-type dependent.
METHODS: Two within-participant crossover studies were conducted involving 12 (Study 1) and 24 (Study 2) healthy participants. In Study 1, participants completed a stepped incremental cycling task to exhaustion. In Study 2, participants performed self-regulated intermittent isometric handgrip contractions at light (13/100) and strong (50/100) perceived effort. Tasks were completed under immersive VR (nature scene), two-dimensional sham, and no-intervention control conditions in pseudo-randomised, counterbalanced orders. Pain onset, NOMP intensity, perceived effort, and time to exhaustion were assessed in Study (1) Muscle pain intensity and force production were measured in Study (2) Repeated measures ANOVAs and assessed main condition effects.
RESULTS: Immersive VR did not delay pain onset [Formula: see text], prolong time to exhaustion [Formula: see text], or lower perceived effort compared within sham or control conditions [Formula: see text]. A small, yet practically meaningful, reduction in NOMP intensity occurred early during cycling [Formula: see text] but was not sustained at later phases of the task [Formula: see text]. In Study 2, NOMP intensity [Formula: see text] and force production measures [Formula: see text] were similar across conditions.
CONCLUSION: Nature-based immersive VR had limited effects on NOMP and motor performance. Pain types that are peripherally driven, like NOMP, may be less affected by VR interventions which target central mechanisms of pain modulation. Thus, hypoalgesia effects with VR are potentially pain-type dependent.