Extracellular Vesicle Inhibitors Enhance Cholix-Induced Cell Death via Regulation of the JNK-Dependent Pathway.

Vibrio cholerae is an important foodborne pathogen. Cholix cytotoxin (Cholix), produced by V. cholerae, is a novel eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2) adenosine diphosphate ribosyltransferase that causes host cell death by inhibiting protein synthesis. However, the role of Cholix in the infectious diseases caused by V. cholerae remains unclear. Some bacterial cytotoxins are carried by host extracellular vesicles (EVs) and transferred to other cells. In this study, we investigated the effects of EV inhibitors and EV-regulating proteins on Cholix-induced hepatocyte death. We observed that Cholix-induced cell death was significantly enhanced in the presence of EV inhibitors (e.g., dimethyl amiloride, and desipramine) and Rab27a-knockdown cells, but it did not involve a sphingomyelin-dependent pathway. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that desipramine, imipramine, and EV inhibitors promoted the Cholix-activated c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway. Furthermore, JNK inhibition decreased desipramine-enhanced Cholix-induced poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage. In addition, suppression of Apaf-1 by small interfering RNA further enhanced Cholix-induced PARP cleavage by desipramine. We identified a novel function of desipramine in which the stimulated JNK pathway promoted a mitochondria-independent cell death pathway by Cholix.