The role of maternal dietary protein on livestock development, production and health.

Maternal dietary protein plays a pivotal role in shaping offspring development, health, and productivity in economically important livestock species, including pigs, cattle, and sheep. Protein intake during gestation influences multiple physiological processes in the offspring, such as fetal growth, metabolic programming, muscle development, immune function, reproduction, and gut health. The specific effects of maternal protein intake vary depending on the species and the gestational period, as the demands for protein fluctuate throughout pregnancy to support fetal development and postnatal adaptation. This review systematically explores the effects of maternal protein nutrition on the offspring of different species and identifies the commonalities and differences observed in the studies. Studies indicate that maternal protein restriction can lead to lower birth weights, impaired muscle growth, altered metabolic programming, and compromised immune function in offspring, potentially affecting their long-term productivity. Conversely, excessive protein intake may also have adverse effects, such as immune dysregulation and metabolic imbalances. The impact of maternal protein levels extends beyond birth, influencing postnatal growth trajectories, reproductive performance, and gut microbiota composition. While considerable progress has been made in understanding these relationships, gaps remain in identifying the precise molecular mechanisms underlying these effects. Future research should focus on refining dietary recommendations tailored to different livestock species, investigating the role of gestation stage-specific protein requirements, and integrating multi-omics approaches to elucidate the long-term consequences of maternal protein intake. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms will contribute to optimizing feeding strategies, enhancing animal welfare, and improving the sustainability of livestock production systems.