Ecotoxicological assessment of Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) and Eisenia foetida Savigny exposure to pharmaceutical and personal care products, and hazelnut shell.

Porous media are the most frequent fate of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) during wastewater treatment using nature-based solutions (NBS, e.g. biofiltration). Caffeine, ibuprofen, losartan, and triclosan are pseudo persistent contaminants, generating chronic toxicity, and hydrolysis of organic support as porous media could cause effects on biotic components (plants and earthworms) of biofilters. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate chronic effect (LOEC: lowest observed effect concentration or NOEC: Non-Observed Effect Concentration and biomarkers) of hazelnut shells and PPCPs on plants (Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.)) and annelids (Eisenia foetida Savigny). Annelids (survival, number of cocoons, and weight) and plants (apical growth, diameter basal, chlorophyll a and b, biomarkers) were exposed to different concentrations (Control (0), 12.5, 25, 50 and 100%) of PPCPs (triclosan, ibuprofen, losartan, caffeine) and hazelnut shells. Results showed reduced plant growth (high apical/basal diameter) exposure to hazelnut shell (LOEC = 25%). Meanwhile, earthworms reported weight loss to hazelnut shell (LOEC = 12.5%) exposure. Non-monotonic (hormetic type) dose-response relationships were observed in both plants and earthworms. The lowest concentration inducing the most pronounced sublethal effects on plants (basal diameter = -10.72 mm) and earthworms (weight loss = 0.35 g) was at triclosan concentrations of 12.5%. Plants exhibited oxidative stress under PPCP exposure (12.5-25%), due to cellular damage induced by hydrolyzed compounds, which triggered antioxidant defense mechanisms and disrupted metabolic homeostasis. Organic residues can serve as promising filter porous in biofiltration. However, chronic exposure to PPCPs may induce molecular-level effects (e.g., redox disruption, enzymatic modulation), highlighting the need for careful material selection and long-term ecotoxicological assessment.