Paternal effects on telomere integrity during the sperm-to-embryo transition.

Telomeres are essential nucleoprotein structures that preserve our terminal DNA sequence and protect chromosome ends from fusion. Our vast knowledge of telomeres comes almost entirely from studies of healthy and diseased somatic cells. However, building evidence suggests that the molecules and mechanisms required for telomere integrity in somatic cells are insufficient to preserve telomere integrity during the sperm-to-embryo transition. Here, we review this growing body of work on telomere 'paternal effects', wherein zygotic telomere integrity is determined not by the genotype of the zygote but instead by the genotype of the father. Direct inheritance of sperm-specific proteins establishes paternal telomere epigenetic identity, while direct inheritance of sperm telomere length contributes to telomere length inheritance. Together, these investigations of telomere integrity through the sperm-to-embryo transition reveal potent paternal effects on zygotic telomere functions, with implications for human infertility.