Outer membrane vesicles hijack TIM-1 for cellular uptake.

Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are nanoscale proteoliposomes shed by Gram-negative bacteria that mediate host-pathogen interactions and hold promise as platforms for vaccines and targeted drug delivery. Despite their biological and translational significance, the cellular mechanisms governing OMV entry into host cells remain poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that E. coli OMVs are internalized by epithelial cells via clathrin-mediated, receptor-dependent endocytosis. Using a high-throughput screen of over 1,500 human single-pass transmembrane proteins, we identify T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain 1 (TIM-1) as a strong OMV-binding receptor. Functional validation revealed that TIM-1 overexpression markedly increased OMV uptake, whereas TIM-1 knockout and antibody-mediated blockade significantly impaired internalization across multiple cell lines. Mechanistic studies demonstrate that TIM-1 binds to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on the OMV surface via its phosphatidylserine-binding domain. Uptake of OMVs by TIM-1 triggers proinflammatory cytokine production which can be reduced by preventing this interaction. Additionally, OMVs from multiple bacterial species hijack TIM-1 for entry, making it an intriguing antivirulence strategy. Our findings establish TIM-1 as a critical host receptor mediating OMV uptake and provide a novel approach to modulate vesicle-driven pathogenesis and enhance OMV-based therapies.